The Collapse of Minoan Civilisation – A Geological, Anthropological, or Meteorological Phenomenon?

Introduction

A phenomenon that occurred over 3000 years ago, the disappearance of the Minoan Civilisation is a historical event that has bewildered academics for over a century, with authors discussing it as far back as 1915. This article will be exploring the reasons for this unexpected collapse and will attempt to determine the sole cause for its occurrence. Firstly, I will explore the impact of the well-known Theran eruption in Ancient Greek history and how it affected Minoan civilisation on Crete just 62 miles away. Then, I will highlight the impact of the Mycenaean invasion – an anthropological factor which many academics use to explain the destruction of Minoan buildings not long after their reconstruction post-Thera. Lastly, I will examine a less widely recognised factor that may have contributed toward the fall of Minoan Crete: climate. By applying the meteorological events of El Niño and La Niña to the historical context, alternative reasons are provided for the fall of civilisation during this period.

The Eruption of Thera

Around 1600 BCE, the eruption of the volcano Thera and the collapse of Minoan civilisation occurred, a coupling that bewilders academics to this day. The eruption of Thera being the main cause of the fall of the Minoans is widely debated. However, there are a few key reasons why we should believe that it was. As Jason Freewalt (an American Military University academic) highlights, there were four key areas that the Theran eruption may have affected; these are the “physical, cultural, economic, and political” areas of society. This section of the article will be divided into these four potential impacts in order to appropriately assess the true significance of the eruption.

Physical

Between 1628 and 1450 BCE, at least four major volcanic eruptions from Thera occurred, making the eruption of Thera “one of the largest volcanic eruptions globally of the last 10,000 years.”

In a study conducted by W.S. Downey and D.H. Tarling (Geophysics and Planetary Physics Professors at the University of Newcastle), the extent of the Theran eruption was that of mass destruction. From their data collection and analysis, these academics found evidence of secondary volcanic hazards: these included tephra deposits, which originated from ash flows at the base of the Thera quarry and reached 300-400ºC (in some places of Santorini, they reached 500ºC). This is reaffirmed by Spyridon Marinatos’ (a Greek archeologist) comparison of the Theran eruption to that of Krakatau in 1883 (regarded as “one of the deadliest volcanic eruptions in modern history”). In his journal article, Marinatos focuses his examination mainly on two key hazards: the power of the resultant tsunami waves, as well as the subsequent earthquakes. In relation to the tsunami waves, at their most powerful point, (103 kilometres from Krakatau and at a sea depth of 150 metres) the wave speed reached 41.17 metres per second. In comparison, at the time of the eruption of Thera, it has been estimated that, at a point around 42 kilometres from the volcano, the sea depth reached over 2000 metres deep: therefore, the waves are expected to have been an absolute minimum speed of 50 metres per second.

Economic

These physical phenomena would likely have had direct economic and social consequences. Vasiliki Kalogeropoulou (a student of the University of the Peloponnese) examines this in his university thesis, recognising to what extent the tephra expelled by Thera could have plausibly buried crops and poisoned the water in Crete. In addition, Kalogeropoulou draws upon Marinatos’ research, amongst that of other academics, to conclude that the monstrous waves produced by the eruption would have destroyed all of Crete’s “harbour sailboats, fishing boats, and commercial vessels,” ultimately halting trade and devastating any Minoan naval power.

Political

Political instability and natural disasters are well known to go hand in hand, influencing one another pre-, during, and post-disaster. The destruction of social and economic means of survival as a result of the Theran eruption would have logically led to political disruption, including decentralisation, a rise of elitist power, and an exaggeration of exclusionary and discriminatory behaviour projected onto outsiders, all of which would have likely resulted in both external and internal conflict.

A more recent example which demonstrates the political instability which natural disasters can cause is the effect of the Attabad landslide in Gojal, an area of Pakistan. This landslide of large rocks occurred in 2010, destroyed half of the village below, and cut the village off from its access to Pakistan. For some background, Gojal is a geographical area of Pakistan which is politically governed by the Government of Gilgit-Baltistan, a government and area whose political representation in Pakistan is non-existent: in other words, those residing in Gilgit-Baltistan are not permitted to vote for the Pakistani National Assembly.  The slow response from Pakistan in order to remove the debris produced by the landslide led to protests from the Gonajli population. After further disruption to trade and reparation for damages to their livelihoods in 2011, riots ensued, which led to police shooting two protestors. If political instability is occurring as a result of natural disasters today, why would we not assume that it was a likely result of the eruption during the Minoan era?

For Minoan society, it is argued by some academics that the Theran eruption resulted in decentralisation and political fragmentation. Prior to the eruption, Minoan Crete was an “Early State,” one that was structured around the ideologies of reciprocity and a division between the people and the sovereign, therefore lacking in autonomy and bureaucracy. After the eruption, however, Crete was becoming more economically developed and was experiencing a rise of the “secular elite.” While this could be the result of hostile Mycenaean invasion, the destruction of storage facilities, palaces, and distribution channels by the eruption of Thera in Minoan Crete presumably caused the fragmentation of political systems, a rise in social inequality, and increasing religious instability.

Cultural

In terms of the cultural impact of the Theran eruption, it is difficult to estimate. While economic, political, and physical impacts would likely have resulted in at least some loss or change of culture, the extent to which this was largely due to the Theran eruption is undeterminable due to the invasion of the Mycenaeans which occurred shortly thereafter.

Mycenaean Invasion

As was mentioned briefly above, the extent to which the Theran eruption ultimately led to the collapse of Minoan civilisation is impeded upon by the Mycenaean invasion of Crete. Explored in depth by Ashley Arp (a student of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln), the Theran eruption was unlikely the cause of the downfall of Minoan Crete due to substantial evidence of new building projects taking place soon after the destruction. However, this new prominence that they established was, to many academics, merely a sign of preparation for attack – these building projects were not just of houses and palaces, but of walls and defence towers. By around 1450 BCE, human destruction was occurring – a sign of the Mycenaean invasion.

However, as A.A. Tsonis and others (academics from various American universities) note, the argument amongst academics is nothing but contradictory due to evidence both for and against the impact of Mycenaean invasion presenting itself. While the above is true, burial sites discovered in Crete discourage this Mycenaean invasion hypothesis; the burial sites were neatly organised and well-preserved, factors that undermine characteristics usually associated with an invasion scenario. This was further weakened by evidence of Mycenaean prominence in mainland Greece, prominence that, if invasion was that impactful, would have been discovered in the much more vulnerable and easy-to-invade Crete, again supporting theories against invasion.

The Climate?

While the volcanic eruptions and invasion of the Mycenaeans are those factors most widely considered when determining the cause of the downfall of Minoan society, Tsonis and others note that which we often fail to mention: the role of the climate. In an age where anthropological climate change is at its peak, the processes of natural climate change are easily overlooked. However, in this instance, it seems that its impact should not be underestimated.

A relatively rare but often damaging phenomenon, El Niño and La Niña are fluctuations in the relationship between the Earth’s atmosphere and its oceans which drastically alter temperatures and precipitation rates globally. Although El Niño was not recognised by South American fisherman until the 1600s, this does not assume its absence beforehand. Tsonis and others recognise the oscillations’ impact at the global scale, and attempt to use this to justify the unusual decline of the Minoans.

Demonstrated in Tsonis and others’ figure to the left, the intensity of El Niño events have increased steadily since c. 1450 BCE which, as you may note from the beginning of this article, is consistent with the timeline of the fall of Minoan civilisation.

In combination with Figures 2 and 3, which display an almost negligible difference to the conditions of the era we are focusing on, A.A. Tsonis and others have been able to, with a significant level of accuracy, backdate the severity of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycles. As they state: “it is highly probable that the area of Crete experienced drier conditions from 1450 to 1200 BCE.” Consequently, climate factors likely played a significant role in the collapse of Minoan civilisation: as drought spread rapidly, water became scarce and agriculture depleted, severely impacting those communities that relied on it most.

Conclusion

So, was the collapse of Minoan civilisation a geological, anthropological, or meteorological phenomenon? The truth is, it is completely uncertain. Despite new evidence constantly being found to support various arguments, academics are likely to continue to disagree upon each of their importance. While some arguments have stronger grounding than others (for example, the impact of climate being more pronounced than that of Mycenaean invasion), it is likely that all three instances were to blame for the unanticipated loss of an entire culture of people.

Written by Amy Hutchison

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